貨幣
何謂全球貨幣市場?
貨幣是指一個國家或地區所使用的金錢或官方付款工具,而較主要的貨幣包括美元($)、歐元(€)、日圓(¥)、英鎊(£)及瑞士法郎。大部份貨幣都有其代表符號,但外匯市場以ISO(國際標準化組織)貨幣代碼來識別貨幣。以下是部份ISO貨幣代碼:
高度專業的銀行同業市場每日就數以萬億美元計的貨幣進行交易,其電子交易平台將世界各地銀行的貨幣交易員聯繫起來。有賴全球貨幣交易員的合作,外匯市場可以全日24小時有效運作。亞洲交易員會在每個營業日結束時,將未平倉的貨幣交由歐洲同事處理;當歐洲營業日結束後,他們又將未平倉的貨幣轉交美國交易員處理;而美國交易員就會在當地營業日結束時,將倉盤交回亞洲同事。這個循環週而復始,令外匯市場能夠持續流動,真正覆蓋全球。
任何釐定貨幣之間的匯率?
匯率反映一種貨幣與另一種貨幣的相對價值。以1英鎊兌2美元的匯率為例,這代表2美元可以買入1英鎊。美元是最常用的參考貨幣,其他貨幣通常都以兌美元報價。
購買力平價理論經常用於說明兩種貨幣價值變動之間的關係,而《經濟學人》雜誌創立的「巨無霸指數」正好闡述這個理論。在理想情況下,一個巨無霸漢堡於全球各地的價值應該相同,而不論當地貨幣匯價如何。舉例說:假設1英鎊可以兌換2美元,而巨無霸在英國的售價為2.50英鎊,那麼在美國的售價應為5美元。如果英鎊相對美元的購買力上升,匯率便須作出調整,令英鎊能夠兌換更多美元,否則消費者就會轉往售價較低的國家購物。
就資金本身而言,若把利率視為資金的價格,則上述原則同樣適用。如果一項金融資產的實質回報(經通脹調整)在兩個國家出現差異,投資者就會湧到回報較高的國家。利率必須調整,方能遏止這趨勢。這種關係背後的理論,稱為利率平價理論。(分析利率時,應留意分辨實質利率與名義利率,兩者的差距相當於通脹率。一個國家的預期通脹越高,投資者在投資於特定貨幣時便會要求更高的回報作補償。)
貨幣交易是否一直如當前般活躍?
事實上,貨幣交易並非一直如此活躍,主要由於過往大部份貨幣的匯率都缺乏彈性,並不像現在般「自由浮動」。在19世紀,多國政府開始以黃金儲備作為其貨幣的擔保,使貨幣價值與若干數量的黃金掛鉤。這種黃金平價機制有助穩定貨幣價值,增強民眾對貨幣的信心。英國在1821年引進「金本位」制度,至20世紀初,全球大部份主要貿易國都已相繼跟隨。
在金本位制度下,政府或央行必須維持符合該國貨幣供應的足量黃金儲備,確保貨幣能夠隨時完全兌換為黃金。
然而,一旦發生戰爭或危機,維持充足的黃金儲備水平並不容易。在第一次世界大戰期間,多個國家曾經棄用金本位制度。及至1920年代末期,「金匯兌本位制」出現,國家可以本土貨幣兌換黃金或其他以黃金作擔保的貨幣,例如英鎊或美元,首批「儲備貨幣」亦因此誕生。後來,隨著1929年的經濟危機開始肆虐,英國在1931年決定放棄金本位制度,多個國家亦隨之效法。
在第二次世界大戰結束時,40個國家簽訂了「布雷頓森林協定」,發展成另一個固定而可以調整的匯率制度。這些國家的貨幣與美元掛鈎,而美國則同意維持金本位制度。不過,在美國決定棄用金本位後,布雷頓森林協定已於1970年代廢除。
時至今日,固定匯率制度仍然存在,但大部份主要經濟體的貨幣現已自由浮動,容許匯率因應經濟和市場發展情況而調整。浮動匯率制度的出現,普遍被視為有助提升全球金融的穩定性。許多國家都由獨立的中央銀行負責監察國家貨幣是否穩定,例如美國聯儲局或英倫銀行。
歐洲貨幣聯盟的成員國在過去數十年達成共識,致力建立一個使用單一貨幣的共同經濟區,並於1999年1月為11個參與國家設立與新貨幣歐元的固定匯率。起初,歐元只是以會計貨幣的形式出現,直至2002年歐元硬幣及紙幣才開始流通,代替德國馬克及法國法郎等國家貨幣。歐洲央行負責制訂整個歐元區的貨幣政策,同時須考慮歐元區各國在經濟發展程度方面的差異。
外匯市場有哪些參與者?
多年以來,外匯市場參與者的影響力已有所轉變。傳統上,貨品進口商和出口商是外匯市場上最重要的參與者,他們透過銀行進行貨幣交易。因此,國際貿易是影響貨幣供求的主要動力。時至今日,貿易仍然透過商貿往來直接影響外匯市場,並透過跟隨官方國際貿易和投資流數據而變化的市場動態間接發揮影響力。但隨著時間推移,貿易的重要性已經減弱,金融投資者反而逐漸活躍於外匯市場。
外匯市場轉為以投資者主導,主要是由於投資者紛紛跨國尋找有利可圖的投資機會。舉例來說,當英國投資者在美國買入股票時,便需要承擔持有美元股票而帶來的貨幣風險。投資者或會設法對沖這方面的風險,避免利潤受匯率的不利變動所拖累。
此外,投資者在物色全新及無相關性的回報來源時,逐漸把貨幣視作獨特的資產類別,並留意到其提供收益來源的潛力。貨幣投資不但有助分散風險,也讓投資者可把握外匯市場失效的機會,爭取潛在額外回報。
金融機構已經成為外匯市場的最大參與者。雖然國際結算銀行指出,銀行同業業務約佔外匯成交額一半,但其他金融機構才是最主要的增長動力,包括保險公司、退休基金、對沖基金、資產管理公司,以及當中最重要的中央銀行。
如何投資於貨幣?
雖然貨幣被視作一種資產類別,但投資者不能純粹只投資於一種貨幣,而需要就一項貨幣相對另一項貨幣(例如美元兌歐元)的價值採取觀點。
不少全球公司和投資管理公司會利用外匯市場對沖其貨幣持倉。有意透過匯市獲利的投資者可以運用不同方式投資於貨幣,當中以「套息交易」最廣為人知。套息交易又稱為遠期利率偏向,旨在從兩個國家的息差水平中獲利。簡單來說,投資者借入低息貨幣,並投資於收益較高的貨幣,藉此從利率差異中賺取利潤。不過,套息交易亦會令投資者蒙受風險,因為匯率可能突然出現不利的變化,削弱甚至蠶食潛在利潤。
「基本因素」策略是外匯市場最常見的策略之一。公司及投資者通常會分析多種基本因素,例如經濟增長、經濟政策、國家預算赤字及盈餘等,從而識別貨幣的公平價值,並預測匯率的未來走勢。一旦投資者的分析錯誤,這種直接投資貨幣的方式將帶來損失部份或全部資金的風險。
有何風險?
外匯交易附帶不少風險。貨幣走勢或會反覆波動,並受當地和國際經濟及政治事件的影響。另外,取決於國家的經濟和政治情況,以及其貨幣制度,不同國家的貨幣波幅亦會顯著不同。即使某些貨幣已經與其他貨幣掛鈎(每日的波幅因而較低),但假如掛鈎水平有變,它們仍可能大幅波動。再者,槓桿交易更會擴大這些風險,即使最初投資金額不大,亦能造成重大虧損。
披露
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